Through a literature review on research of sports social stratification, describes the social stratification in sport’s social, historical, diversity and universality, effectiveness. From both the social stratification & sports two perspectives discussed in social mobility of players and sports participation of different social strata. Proposed a study on sports theory and practice of social stratification in China need to explore several issues.
1 Overview of the theory of social stratification
Traditional social stratification study, has been the subject of sociology. Theory of social stratification is divided into two factions, one by one are Marxism, a is the Weber school. Marx is mainly based on the means of production have divided social classes; Weber multiple index system to divide, he identified three indicators: wealth, prestige and power. Under their influence, most recently, 20 years, theories of social stratification developed into three: the first class school of pie is still advocated the Division of social classes, this school also has two branches, the new school and xinweibo School of Marxism. Second school advocated the Division of occupational prestige as the main index to class, a school in United States Dimon as representative of the University of California, Los Angeles. Third to popular attention in recent years France represented academic fellow of the Institute of Pierre Bourdieu, his theory is characterized by using human divided consumer hobby class.
After more than 20 years of continued economic reform, China’s social stratification of the Department has undergone fundamental changes, the original simple “two class a class” a marked differentiation in social structure. In early 2002, Chinese Academy of social sciences published the “social class in contemporary China”, China has differentiated into ten sectors of society, modernization of the basic structure of social strata ingredients are in place, modern social strata sequence has been set, the formation of a modern structure of social strata in China. In 2004, Zheng Hangsheng Liu, Jinming and proposed transition structure of social strata in China should follow some basic principles, based on these principles, professional standards Division of the social stratification in transition suggested a preliminary framework, to divide the urban social boundaries is 7 clear career walks.
2 research of sports social stratification purposes
Lv Shuting Professor pointed out that, from social tiered of perspective to research mass sports, conducive to has solutions and master different class crowd of sports attitude, conducive to understanding sports population of class structure, conducive to has targeted to used different of method tiered development sports population; conducive to deepened on contemporary China social changes of understanding, conducive to understanding China social class of differentiation and evolution, and to this as forecast China mass sports reform and development of under one, service Yu policy developed and further promoting mass sports of development.
Social stratification in sport also has guidance significance to the sports industry. L9 century 90 ‘s to the early 20th century, United States of many large-scale luxury sports clubs have been closed down, and some small and medium-sized clubs had gradually occupied most of the market, is why luxury Club funding is too large, chaotic management, but small and medium-sized clubs can meet the needs of the middle class and working class. Effective marketing strategies should be based on different social classes, sports market into different sections with the same features, so as to understand the needs and aspirations of all sectors, designed to meet the needs of the various parts of sports product and sports services.
In addition, sports associated with economic inequality, and how sports associated with cultural ideas on economic success and failure, social class is how sports participation mode of the Institute of the same community, the extent to which sport for athletes and other sports organizations in providing career opportunities to find employment opportunities, to what extent. Participation in sports can help an entire career success and upward social mobility for players, which adopted a series of questions need answering the social stratification theory and practice of physical education.
3 physical characteristics of social stratification
3. 1 sports social stratification in social
Sports participation reflects the lifestyle of established on the basis of social class, lifestyle of these appear, can reflect to some extent the way you have the resources and the use of these resources. Socio-economic differentiation has been involved in all areas of social life, and affects all aspects of sports participation. Physical contact with the social stratum of society and social relations together, organized sports depend on the social organization or individual fund management institutions, facilities and organizational experience. Also, sports interaction, sports and media interaction with consumers, sports and corporate business interaction, physical interaction with Governments, even those like the United States, and Canada, countries of Western Europe such a rich society, sport participation was only popular in upper middle class.
3. 2 sports social stratification and historic
More than 2000 years ago, ancient Greece provides only man has the power to participate in the Olympic Games, prohibit women from participating in or watch, women offenders would be punished by falling off a cliff throwing dead. Men occupy the dominant position in the personal life and social life, status of women is always dependent of the man of the second, equal social rights are lost. Ancient Olympic Games not only for the contestants and audience a clear limit, and the social status of the winner will also be promoted. Early winners get the honor of the Olympic Games on the field, as the 31 fierce competition between city States and the introduction of incentive policies, money and interest began to intervene in competitive sports. 6th century BC, Consul Solon first provided to the winners of the Olympic Games in Athens to 500 Silver Award, this money can buy 500 sheep or 20 slaves. In the middle ages, Knights only nobles have the opportunity to receive education, rider education is the core of horse riding, swimming, hunting spear, investment, Gill sword, A Game of Chess, poetry, etc. Aristocrat to show and maintain their social status. Even today, the organized sport continues to be a luxury, many people cannot afford, it is still prevalent in the upper social strata.
3. Universality of social stratification in 3 sports
Sports in the field of social stratification in sport is everywhere. Famous athletes or Olympic champion social prestige and very different treatment and ordinary athletes, the Olympic champion to gain upward social mobility opportunities through sports. In terms of sport, different groups of occupational stratification or attitudes, needs, and sports participation of interest groups are differentiated.
3. 4 diversity of social stratification in sport
Physical basis of social stratification and there is no unified – standard, sport is a wide variety of social stratification. We can according to tier different biological, psychological and social factors. Including personal forms, personal factors such as age, gender, family background, education, social, environmental and other social factors.
Abroad has on sports social stratification of the basis for the study of literature reports, such as ThomasC. Wilson’s research shows that social tall people more involved in sports, but they rarely participate in so-called “proletarian” campaign. Social survey in 1993, a phenomenon that originated in different socio-cultural and economic capital, cultural capital and social and economic capital of the rich rich and differentiated, rich social culture more reluctant to participate in the so-called “proletarian” campaign. In short, the socio-cultural capital than economic capital to better explain the sports participation. Reflect the role of the community involved in the sports social inequalities and cultural pluralism.
3. 5 validity of social stratification in sport
Sports affect the participant’s identity, social stratification, sports consciousness and even the social prestige of sports consumption, sports and social stratification closely associated lifestyle. And sports, to some extent also provides athletes with career satisfaction and return.
4 sports and perspectives of the social stratification
4. 1 sports social classes
Dong Jinxia research in the 1990 of the 20th century, the father, the mother’s economic status and education of elite athletes engaged in competitive sports influence. Family background and male and female athletes in sports participation, differences in participation in project reveals family relationship must exist between the cultural and gender.
Zhong Bingshu pointed out that, excellent sports teams of nature decided has athletes into has excellent sports teams of gate zhihou, either hard training, with superb of movement technology, and excellent of movement results meet social of hope, while get self meet and substances interests, either because movement results up not to provisions of requirements, from high a level of sports teams drops to low level of sports teams, last mercilessly to was extrusion sports teams of gate. Players grow up fully explain their scores in the role of sport, even an ordinary farmer’s descendants, because their scores well, there will be people’s respect.
Elite athletes is not a constant identity or occupation, it is just a location exists with the players ‘ scores of exists. Sports performance can sustain, and can also improve or decline. Elite athlete status also changes with the changes in its athletic achievements, he is likely to be higher levels of player, Cho also back into the ranks of the non-athletes. In fact, regardless of how its performance, athletes will face retired from elite athletes to new jobs. This is the best player in the life of a “turning point”. At this turning point, some promotions, some decline in status, some people are working hard to find.
When young people can use sport participation to extend their social life and personal experiences of the time, when they are looking for professional will have the advantage. However, when participation restricted social life and personal experiences when it is likely to have a negative impact on career success. These modes exist also vary according to the different sports. Of course, today many athletes very high income almost guarantee their future career success, and economic security.
Many elite athletes at home and abroad were obtained through physical degrees, scholarships, and finished his education, and is likely to achieve career success. Also has a lot of players by career sports out of poverty and gain upward social mobility. While for some people, actually exists in physical cause career opportunities for upward social mobility, but these opportunities rarely, and the time was not for long. Retired athletes can often lead to stress and on personal challenges, facing re-employment of retired athletes in our country, poverty, medical and other issues. Sports with the social model of social inequality in combined together. And we should accept the notion, namely via Sports Road to success is conditional, it applies only to the part of a limited number of people, and it is more dependent on the physical skills of show on the sports ground.
Sold，A． S． And Yusuff,K. B． Investigation of socio-economic status of the Nigerian elite athletes, social background and the experience of social mobility, they collected the L5 item 341 of elite athletes (226 men athletes and 115 female athlete) metrics and social stratification and their parents to be addressed. Study on knot shows that most of the elite athletes from low socio-economic status of families, many elite athletes have experienced upward social mobility.
ChamblissDanielF． To discuss the angle of social stratification of Olympic swimmer’s outstanding performance. In the sports of swimming, clear social stratification exists not only between individuals, also exists in only in summer activities, loosely organized, not competitive, and only a low level of part-time volunteer coach of the Club and the intense competition of the Olympic team at the highest level of q. Social stratification is acceptable to the student athletes because swimming success is to define such social stratification. Different exercise level is of a different nature. Social stratification in sport is unconnected, is continuous. Exist between the different movements level interrupts important substantive (not continuous). Differences in attitude, discipline and skill to explain the reasons for the success of the athletes, more accurate than explained by sports talent.
4. 2 social stratum’s sports
4. 2. 1 q sports participation mode of different social strata sports participation is different between different social classes. Jackc． Watosn ⅱ, scholars believe that sports participation mode of the layer and low-level groups in society such as table 1-3.
SeheerderJeroen,VanreuselBart,TalsMarijke in accordance with people’s social and cultural background, investigation on the application of principal component analysis 1979-1999 Belgium Handers adult leisure sports participation, and ask at any time change in trend. Studies show that leisure sports social inequalities still prevalent, that age, gender and social status have been impact movement in the most important factor. According to age, gender and social status are different, people not only to participate in leisure sports of different frequencies, and sports participation, social differences also exist in the context of the Organization and participation on your preferences.
Yiannakis1973 year at the foot of AndrewATheoryofSportStratiifcation research purposes in order to develop a conceptual model to explain and predict why sports of different social classes have different preferences. Support the theory and practice of high social class tend to more expensive, personal and unlimited outdoor sports, relatively, they accept lower mass culture. Based on these variables, predicting social status score of 39 campaign, reflecting j, the social status of these sports.
In addition, sports audience appreciation mode also is subject to the influence of social class. This can be through more and more serious sports fans in the stadium and the stadium separating unsubstantiated. Luxury box, Club seat and season ticket standards mode by wealth and power to quarantine people, respectively. Thus social classes often in people watching games are once again affirmed. Influence of sports appreciation of social stratification factors include media, individual sports, hobbies, like the individual sport sports skills of sports consumption level and so on.
5 in the study of social stratification in China sports several issues worth discussing
According to the theory and practice of social stratification in sport at home and abroad, we believe that social stratification is permanent. Social stratification is essentially due to resource people have in the social structure of society caused by unequal social status-square, because society has on the overall scarcity of resources, impossible to satisfy everyone is given equal resources required and, therefore, existing social stratification has been accompanied by human society. Because the social differences are permanent, economic inequality is permanent, and the sport itself stressed the unequal. Sports social stratification is gradually attention by scholars, then the following questions should be answered by the PE theoretical circles:
(1) sports social class division standard (such as consumption, self awareness, career, etc).
(2) forecast China popular or upcoming social status of popular sports.
(3) preference of Chinese sports at all levels.
(4) sports resources in all sectors of society and socio-cultural resource on the sports tier effect.
(5) participation in the flow of social sports of all levels of society.
(6) how to use sport sports economic theories of social stratification.
体育的社会分层述评
通过对体育社会分层研究文献的回顾，介绍了体育社会分层的社会性、历史性、普遍性、多样性和有效性。同时从体育中的社会分层以及社会分层中的体育两个视角讨论运动员的社会流动，以及不同社会阶层的体育运动参与模式。提出了中国体育社会分层理论与实践研究需要探讨的若干问题。
论文关键词：体育；社会分层；社会流动；体育参与
1社会分层的理论概述
传统的社会分层研究，一直是社会学的主题。社会分层理论分为两大派，一一个是马克思主义学派，一个是韦伯学派。马克思主要是根据对生产资料占有来划分社会阶层；韦伯则采用多指标体系来划分，他确定了三个指标：财富、声望和权力。受他们的影响，最近的、二十年，社会分层理论发展成了三大派：第一派是阶级学派，仍主张划分社会的各阶级，这一派又有两个分支，新马克思主义学派和新韦伯学派。第二派主张以职业声望作为主要指标来划分阶级，这一学派以美国加州大学洛杉矶分校的戴蒙为代表。第三派以近几年颇受关注的法国学术院的院士皮埃尔·布迪厄为代表，他的理论特点是用人的消费嗜好来划分阶级。
经过20多年持续的经济改革，中国的社会分层本系发生了根本性的变化，原来的较为简单的“两个阶级一个阶层”的社会结构发生了显著的分化。2002年初，中国社会科学院公布了“当代中国社会阶层”，提出中国社会已分化为十大阶层，现代化社会阶层的基本构成成份都已具备，现代化的社会阶层位序已经确立，一个现代化社会阶层结构已经在中国形成。2004年，郑杭生和刘精明提出转型期我国社会阶层结构划分应遵循的一些基本原则，依据这些原则，以职业为标准对转型期社会分层的划分提出了一个初步框架，将我国城市社会划分为7个界限相地清晰的职业阶层。
2体育社会分层的研究目的
吕树庭教授指出，从社会分层的视角来研究大众体育，有利于了解和掌握不同阶层人群的体育态度，有利于了解体育人口的阶层结构，有利于有针对性地采用不同的方法分层发展体育人口；有利于加深对当代中国社会变迁的理解，有利于了解中国社会阶层的分化和演进，并以此作为预测中国大众体育改革和发展的根据之一，服务于政策制定和进一步推进大众体育的发展。
体育社会分层对体育产业也具有指导意义。l9世纪90年代到20世纪初，美国的许多大规模豪华体育俱乐部相继倒闭，而一些中小俱乐部却逐渐占领了大部分市场，原因就在于豪华俱乐部资金投入过大，管理混乱，而中小俱乐部却能满足中产阶级和工人阶级的需要。有效的营销战略应该是根据不同的社会阶层，将体育市场细分成具有相同特征的不同部分，从而了解各部门的需求和愿望，设计满足各部分需求的体育产品和体育服务。
另外，体育运动怎样同经济不平等相联系，以及体育运动怎样同关于经济成功和失败的文化观念相联系，社会阶层是怎样同社会中的体育运动参与模式联系起来的，体育运动在何种程度上能够为运动员和其他在体育组织中寻找就业机会的人提供职业机会，在何种程度上．参与体育运动有助于整个职业上的成功和运动员们的向上社会流动，这一系列问题都需要通过体育社会分层理论与实践的研究进行回答。
3体育社会分层的特征
3．1体育社会分层的社会性
体育参与模式反映了建立在社会阶层基础上的生活方式，这些生活方式的出现，一定程度上能反映出人们所拥有的资源以及运用这些资源的方式。社会经济分化已涉及社会生活的各个领域，并影响了体育参与的各个方面。体育同社会中的社会阶层和社会关系联系在一起，有组织的体育运动依赖社会组织或个人的资金、设施和有组织经验的管理机构。而且，体育与消费者互动、体育与媒体互动、体育与公司企业互动、体育与国家政府互动，即便是在那些像美国、加拿大、西欧国家这样的富裕社会里，体育参与也只是在中上阶层流行。
3．2体育社会分层的历史性
2000多年前，古希腊规定只有男子才有权力参加奥运会，禁止妇女参加或观看比赛，触犯条例的妇女将受到从山崖抛下摔死的处罚。男人一直占据个人生活和社会生活的支配地位，妇女始终处于依附男子的第二性的地位，丧失了平等的社会权利。古奥林匹克运动不但对参赛者和观众加以明确的限制，而且获胜者的社会地位也会得到提升。早期奥运会赛场上的优胜者得到的是荣誉，随着城邦间竞争31趋激烈和奖励政策的出台，金钱和利益开始介入竞技运动。公元前6世纪，雅典执政官梭伦首先规定给奥运会的优胜者以500银币奖励，这笔奖金可购买500只羊或20个奴隶。在中世纪，只有贵族才有机会接受骑士教育，骑士教育的核心是骑马、游泳、投矛、刺剑、狩猎、弈棋、吟诗等。贵族以此显示和维护自己的社会地位。直至今天，有组织的体育运动仍然是一种奢侈品，很多人负担不起，它依然盛行在中上层社会阶层中。
3．3体育社会分层的普遍性
体育社会分层在体育领域里无处不在。著名运动员或奥运冠军的社会声望和待遇与普通运动员迥然不同，奥运冠军通过体育能获得向上的社会流动机会。在群众体育方面，不同职业分层群体或利益群体的体育态度、需求和体育参与是有区别的。
3．4体育社会分层的多样性
体育社会分层的依据并没有统一–的标准，体育社会分层是多种多样的。我们可根据不同的生物、心理、社会因素进行分层。包括个人的形态、年龄、性别等个人因素，家庭背景、受教育程度、社会环境等社会因素。
国外已有对体育社会分层的依据进行研究的文献报道，如ThomasC．Wilson的研究表明，社会高层参与体育运动的人更多，但是他们很少参与所谓的“无产者”运动。1993年的社会调查显示，这一现象源于不同的社会文化资本和经济资本，而且社会文化资本的富有者和经济资本的富有者又是有区别的，社会文化富有者更不愿意参与所谓的“无产者”运动。总之，社会文化资本比经济资本能更好地解释体育参与。参与体育的社会角色不同反映出社会不平等和文化的多元性。
3．5体育社会分层的有效性
体育社会分层影响参与者的身份认同、体育消费、体育意识甚至是社会声望，体育社会分层与生活方式紧密相联。而且，体育在一定程度上也确实为运动员的职业生涯提供了满足感和回报。
4体育与社会分层的研究视角
4．1体育中的社会阶层
董进霞研究了20世纪90年代父、母亲的经济地位和受教育情况对我国优秀运动员从事竞技体育的影响。男、女运动员在家庭背景和参与项目上的差异揭示出体育参与、家庭和性别文化之间存在着一定的相互关系。
钟秉枢指出，优秀运动队的性质决定了运动员进了优秀运动队的大门之后，要么刻苦训练，用高超的运动技术、优异的运动成绩满足社会的希望，同时获得自我满足和物质利益，要么由于运动成绩达不到规定的要求，从高一级的运动队降到低一级的运动队，最后毫不留情地被挤出运动队的大门。运动员的成长过程充分说明运动成绩在竞技运动中的作用，即使是一名普通农民的后代，由于运动成绩出色，也会受到人们的尊敬。
优秀运动员并不是一种不变的身份或职业，它只是一个位置，随运动员成绩的存在而存在。运动成绩能够维持，也可以提高，或者下降。优秀运动员的地位也随其运动成绩的变化而变化，他有可能成为更高水平的运动员，也町能重新到非运动员的行列。事实上，无论其运动成绩如何，运动员终将面临从优秀运动员到退役而重新就业。这是优秀运动员一生中的一个“转折点”。在这个转折点上，有的人地位升迁，有的人地位下降，有的人则工作难寻。
当年轻人能够运用体育参与来扩展他们的社会生活和个人经历的时候，他们在寻找职业的时候就会拥有优势。然而，当运动参与限制了社会生活和个人经历的时候，它很可能会对职业成功产生负面影响。这些模式的存在也因体育项目的不同而异。当然，今天很多运动员极高的收入差不多保证了他们将来的职业成功和经济安全。
国内外的许多优秀运动员都是通过体育获得学位、奖学金，完成自己的学业，并且很可能取得职业成功。也有很多运动员通过职业体育摆脱贫困并获得了向上的社会流动。尽管对某些人来说，体育中确实存在导致向上社会流动的职业机会，但是这些机会很少，而且时问也不长久。运动员退役常常会导致压力和对个人的挑战，我国退役运动员就面临再就业、贫困、医疗等问题。体育同社会中的社会不平等模式结合在一起。而且我们应该接受这样一种观念，即通过体育走向成功的道路是有条件的，它只适用于一部分数量有限的人，而且，它更多的是依赖于运动场上身体技能的展示。
Sold，A．S．和Yusuff，K．B．调查了尼日利亚精英运动员的社会经济状况、社会背景和所经历的社会流动，他们收集了l5个项目的341位精英运动员(226位男运动员和115女运动员)和他们的父母的社会分层指标数据并加以处理。研究结沦表明，大多数的精英运动员来自低社会经济状态家庭，相当多的精英运动员经历了向上的社会流动。
ChamblissDanielF．以社会分层的视角讨论奥运会游泳选手的优异表现。在游泳竞技中，明确的社会分层不仅存在于个体之间，也存在于从只在夏季活动、组织松散、竞争不激烈、仅有兼职志愿者教练的低水平的俱乐部和竞争激烈的最高水平的奥运会代表队之问。社会分层对学生运动员是可接受的，因为游泳运动的成功就是以这样的社会分层进行定义的。不同运动水平具有不同的性质。体育中的社会分层是互不关联的，是非连续的。不同运动水平之间存在重要的实质性的中断(非连续的)。用态度、纪律和技能方面的差异来解释运动员成功的原因，比用运动天赋来解释更准确。
4．2社会阶层中的体育
4．2．1不同社会阶层问的体育运动参与模式 不同社会阶层间的体育运动参与模式是不同的。Jackc．WatosnⅡ等学者认为社会上层群体和低层群体的体育运动参与模式如表1—3。
SeheerderJeroen，VanreuselBart，TalsMarijke依照人们的社会文化背景，运用主成分分析调查研究1979～1999年比利时Handers地区的成年人余暇体育参与以及随时问变化的趋势。研究表明，余暇体育的社会不平等仍然盛行，指出年龄、性别和社会地位一直是影响运动参加的最重要的因素。依照年龄，性别和社会地位的不同，人们不仅参与余暇体育的频率不同，而且在运动参与中，社会差异也存在于组织的上下关系和参与偏好上。
Yiannakis1973年在AndrewATheoryofSportStratiifcation中的研究目的足为了发展一种概念模型来解释和预测为什么不同的社会阶层有不同的体育偏好。理论和实践支持高社会阶层趋向更昂贵、户外个人和无限制的运动，相对地，他们也接受低层大众文化。基于这些变量，预测了39项运动的社会地位得分，反映出j，这些运动项目的社会地位。
另外，体育观众的欣赏模式也同样受社会阶层的影响。这一点可以通过体育馆和体育场中越来越严重的体育迷的分隔得到证明。豪华包厢、俱乐部座位和季票分别模式通过财富和权力标准把人们隔离起来。因此社会阶层往往在人们观看比赛的时候得到再一次的肯定。体育欣赏的社会分层的影响因素包括媒体、个人的体育爱好、个体自身对所喜欢运动项目的运动技能以及体育消费水平等等。
5中国体育社会分层研究中值得讨论的几个问题
根据国内外的体育社会分层的理论与实践，我们认为体育社会分层将是永久性的。社会分层实质上是由于人们在社会结构中拥有的社会资源不均等而导致社会地位小平等，由于社会资源在整体上具有稀缺性，不可能满足每个人都获得同等的所需资源，因此，社会分层一直伴随着人类社会而存在。因为社会差异是永久性的，经济不平等是永久性的，而且体育本身就强调不平等。体育社会分层正逐渐受到学者们的关注，那么以下问题是应该由体育理论界做出回答的：
(1)体育社会阶层的划分标准(如消费、自我意识、职业等)。
(2)预测中国流行或即将流行的体育项目的社会地位。
(3)中国各阶层的体育偏好。
(4)社会各阶层的体育资源和社会文化资源对体育分层的影响。
(5)参与体育的社会各阶层的社会流动。
(6)如何利用体育社会分层理论指导体育经济。
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